The Battle of Cowpens: American Warfare in Classical Form

Per Scriptum E. Wesley - Mackinac Center Intern

Tactically excellent in execution and classical in form, the Battle of Cowpens on January 17, 1781 was the most brilliant American military accomplishment of the 18th century. To this day, it is the one battle in American history, that can be seen as technically perfect. American General Daniel Morgan not only discovered how to best use militia, but also effected the complete envelopment of the enemy. In addition to being a perfect battle in the tactical sense, Cowpens set the stage for ultimate American victory at Yorktown.

Military historians R. Ernest and Trevor N. Dupuy claimed the Battle of Cowpens "was probably the closest approach to tactical perfection ever seen on the American continent — a complete double envelopment, the dream of every professional soldier." A double envelope is also called a "purse string." Such an accomplishment is first recorded in Classical warfare. At the Battle of Cannae in 216 BC during the Second Punic War, Carthaginian General Hannibal surrounded the Roman army by allowing his front center line to bend and using his flanks to close in around his enemies. Sounds simple enough, but executing it requires not only the right setup formation (in Hannibal's case, a crescent shape), but also exact cooperation from the front line. As Hannibal had only 50,000 men to Roman Consuls Paulus and Varro's 80,000 men, Hannibal's victory was as momentous as its was perfect, and "Cannae" has since become a byword. Putting the Battle of Cowpens in its Classical context, military historian Robert Leckie believed "Cowpens was the American Cannae."

This American victory was none too soon. British General Lord Cornwallis had secured the port of Charleston and begun his invasion of North Carolina. After the British won the Battle of Camden on August 16, 1780, the Continental Congress put General Greene in charge of the southern American forces. With the help of new volunteers from across the Blue Ridge Mountains (called Overmountain men), the Americans won the Battle of King's Mountain, and Cornwallis canceled his invasion of North Carolina as a result. Greene next attempted something risky, splitting up his already inferior army so as to draw Cornwallis into battle. American General Morgan was given 600 men and began moving South while Greene remained in North Carolina. If Cornwallis attacked Greene, Morgan could attack the British fort Ninety-six, and if Cornwallis fell on Morgan, Greene could descend on Charleston. Cornwallis, not having to be cautious with his numbers, simply sent a detachment of 1,500 infantry and cavalry under Colonel "bloody" Tarleton to finish off Morgan.

Militia had always been unstable during the War and continually baffled the American high command. During the Battle of Camden, the militia just broke and fled in the face of a standard bayonet charge, causing the most disastrous results for American regulars who would have normally stood their ground. In fact, in 18th century warfare the entire tactical goal was to disrupt the opposing line with musket fire until a chink was found and charge with bayonets. In other words, if militia could not withstand a bayonet charge, what were they good for? It was General Morgan's pleasure to find out. By the time Tarleton caught up with Morgan about 1,100 militia had joined with Morgan. In preparation for the Battle of Cowpens, Morgan developed a totally original method for using militia; let them do what they want to do. Morgan asked his militia for two volleys, and then told them they could simply leave the field from the left flank at their discretion. Throughout the night, Morgan let his men rest while he meticulously told every commander the battle plan. When the British arrived on the scene at 7:00 am on January 17, 1781, every American commander knew the larger plan and every American soldier knew his part in it.

Situated between two woods on either side with a river behind, Morgan placed 120 sharpshooters up front and told them to specifically target commanders. Behind these were the unpredictable militia. Forming the third and last line, about 400 regulars took their stand. Finally, Colonel William Washington's 80 dragoons and about 40 more militia riders kept the rear, being prepared to defend the flanks. The British moved onto the field.

Tarleton rode in some of his cavalry only to be immediately forced back. The sharpshooters opened fire, then fell back to the militia who gave two or three volleys as planned. Breaking, most of the militia dispersed across the American left flank. Seeing what now appeared to be a typical American militia panic and retreat, Tarleton charged his cavalry full-steam ahead into the scattering militia. However, Washington's reserve cavalry easily repulsed Tarleton's premature dash on the militia. Four hundred American regulars stood unchallenged on the field of battle, and now seeing the reality of the situation, Tarleton ordered an infantry advance on the American regulars. While both regular lines opened on each other, General Morgan rode back to the militia and asked them for one more favor before they left completely. Would they be so pleased as to semicircle around the American regulars and reform along the American right flank? What an irresistible question! This was a chance to have some fun picking on the British left flank, while the American regulars were taking most of the damage. Most of the militia agreed to the deal.

As Morgan talked with the militia, Tarleton was getting tired of fooling around. He sent his 250 reserve division, the 71st Royal Fusilier Highlander Regiment of Foot, along with dragoon support onto the American left flank. Colonel Howard, responsible for the American regulars, gave the order to incline the left flank ever so slightly so as to meet the Highlanders. In the rage of battle, the order was confused and reinterpreted as retreat. When the American left flank began an orderly retreat, the entire American regular line followed suit. Morgan now returned to the regulars, just in time to see the unplanned retreat. Even this mistake was flawless! Because the Americans had given ground, the British filled up the gap. Providence had replicated the equivalent of Hannibal's flexed lines. Morgan reversed the retreat, and ordered a volley of his own while Washington's cavalry swung around and pushed off the British dragoons from the flank. The militia conveniently reformed on the left flank, Howard ordered a bayonet charge, Washington's cavalry rode in behind the British lines, and the double envelopment was now drawn tight. The British infantry surrendered, and Tarleton dashed back to his reserve cavalry for help. Seeing the battle was already lost, most of the reserve refused to fight. Tarleton eventually fled the battlefield after personally clashing with Washington, and in Morgan's own words, left about "10 commissioned officers and over 100 rank and file killed and 200 wounded, 29 commissioned officers and about 500 privates prisoners which fell into our hands with two pieces of artillery, two standards, 800 muskets, one travelling forge, thirty-five baggage wagons, seventy negroes and upwards of 100 dragoon horses, with all their musick" (page 8). With the blessing of God, Morgan achieved the most brilliant tactical success of the War.

The American victory at Cowpens provoked Cornwallis to give chase to General Greene. The Battle of Guilford Court House soon followed and eventually the astounding triumph at Yorktown. Double envelopment of a British army at Cowpens reminiscent of Hannibal led to the eventual downfall of British tyranny in the United States.

Sources:
Images (blended and cropped by E. Wesley Reynolds) DanielMorgan and HannibalTheCarthaginian from Wikipedia
http://web.archive.org/web/20070624212824/http://www.usachcs.army.mil/TACarchive/Acwin98i/Hourihan.htm
http://www.revolutionarywaranimated.com/the-southern-strategy
http://www.archive.org/stream/onehundredyearsa00myer#page/n3/mode/2up
http://www.archive.org/details/onehundredyearsa00myer