Per Scriptum E. Wesley – Mackinac Center Intern
Otto von Bismarck stood on a smooth surface that could be distinguished as a mosaic floor of wood inlay only when fewer nobles filled the enormous room. Chandeliers of crystal glass hung above him, and veins of gold wound down the marble walls. A curtain of unrestrained brilliance fell from the arches in front of him only to be hurled back by the refulgent imitations of the mirrors on the opposite wall. Here was the Hall of Mirrors; a canopy of luster within a palace of light. Bismarck faced a carpeted dais, upon which William I perched underneath a flutter of flags. An echo rang out into the hall and washed over the heads of the German nobility, “Long live His Imperial Majesty, the Emperor William!” (Spielvogel 621). In reply, a cheer surged up to the pedestal, like an ocean wave that outruns its predecessor. This was the moment Bismarck had been so carefully arranging since before the Franco-Prussian war. Victory in France could mean only one thing; the ascendency of a new unified Germany. With France in tatters after the Prussian victory, France later turned to Russia for support in hopes of revenge against Germany, and a new system of treaties was formed that would culminate in the western front of 1914. The ascendency of Germany destroyed the imperial and colonial balance of the 19th century European empires, ending foreign colonialism, and ushered in the modern era, yet not without the demise of Victorian cultural order and the horrors of two worldwide wars.
After the Napoleonic Wars, the Quadruple Alliance (Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Great Britain) called the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to restructure Europe so as to maintain an international balance of power. They restored the old dynasties to the thrones of Europe, and created a binational barrier (Prussia and Austria) in the middle of Europe in order to stop French or Russian expansion. In 1848 and 1849, Europe once again exploded in revolutions similar to the French Revolution, only more on the basis of nationalist sympathy (19th century nationalism held that every ethnic group had a right to its own government). Berlin, Paris, Prague, Vienna, Buda, Venice, Florence, and Rome were among the cities that revolted. These rebellions were subsequently put down, and certain leaders like Bismarck later learned to use nationalistic fervor to achieve the goals of the nation-state. Meanwhile, France dissolved its Republic, and Napoleon III become emperor of France in 1852. Continental European war returned, this time in Crimea, when Russia angered France with a petition to the Ottoman Empire to be given the privilege of protecting Christian landmarks in Palestine, which had always been a French duty. After the Ottoman Empire refused the Russian request, the Russians attacked Moldavia and Walachia. If Russia were allowed these, British trade and supremacy of the eastern Mediterranean Sea would be threatened. Consequently, Britain and France struck Russia’s underside, the Crimean peninsula. Alexander II sued for peace soon after the fall of Sevastopol. Because Britain found the war to be costly compared with the benefits, it decided to largely step out of Continental European affairs. The balancing act of power was now left to the Continental powers alone.
Internal affairs in Germany would be the straw that broke the camel’s back. During much of the 19th century, Germany was a vast domain of autonomous province nations with no strong political unification. The man who would later unite these nations into one Germany was Bismarck. Enjoying the life of a Prussian aristocrat, Bismarck studied much German history, earned a law degree, worked for the German bureaucracy, became a Prussian diplomat in 1847, and was finally appointed as Prussian Prime Minister in 1862 by William I. That same year, Bismarck submitted to parliament an army appropriations bill that would double the Prussian army’s size, as well as enact compulsory service during three years for all Prussian young men. Parliament rejected it, but Bismarck raised the army in spite of parliament’s decision. Thus Bismarck began a habit of ignoring parliament that would last him his entire career. Bismarck then turned to foreign policy. Prussia seized the Schleswig and Holstein duchies through the Danish (1864) and Austro-Prussian (1866) wars. After the Austro-Prussian War, the northern German states became organized as the North German Confederation under Prussian control, and the Catholic southern independent states each signed treaties to join with Prussia in wartime. Now, all that was needed was war.
War presented itself when Isabella II of Spain was deposed and the Spanish offered the throne to one of Prussian king William I’s relatives, Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. If Spain was allowed Prince Leopold, France would be surrounded by Prussian dynasties. Preventatively, France convinced William I to withdraw Prince Leopold. Bismarck regretted this decision, and soon exploited the French diplomatic audacity. The French not only lobbied for Prince Leopold’s withdrawal, but also demanded that William I apologize to the French and promise never again to allow his Hohenzollern relatives to become candidates. William I forwarded a calm refusal telegram to Bismarck before sending it on to the French, but Bismarck changed it to be very offensive and sent it to France. Here’s the difference between the two letters:
William I’s letter:
“M. Benedetti intercepted me on the Promenade in order to demand of me most insistently that I should authorize him to telegraph immediately to Paris that I shall obligate myself for all future time never again to give my approval to the candidacy of the Hohenzollerns should it be renewed. I refused to agree to this, the last time somewhat severely, informing him that one dare not and cannot assume such obligations a tout jamais [forever]. Naturally, I informed him that I had received no news as yet, and since he had been informed earlier than I by way of Paris and Madrid, he could easily understand why my government was once again out of the matter” (630).
Bismarck’s Edits:
“After the reports of the renunciation by the hereditary Prince of Hohenzollern had been officially transmitted by the Royal government of Spain to the Imperial Government of France, the French Ambassador presented to His Majesty the King at Ems the demand to authorize him to telegraph to Paris that His Majesty the King would obligate himself for all future time never again to give his approval to the candidacy of the Hohenzollerns should it be renewed.
His Majesty the King thereupon refused to receive the French envoy again and informed him through an adjutant that His Majesty had nothing further to say to the Ambassador” (ibid).
As Bismarck hoped, the French were incensed by the telegram and declared war with Germany on July 15, 1870. Thus, by July 19th, the French would begin the war which Prussia had been waiting for. From a military standpoint, the first part of the war lasted only about six or seven weeks, but the French still continued to resist even after the capture of Napoleon III, until May 10, 1871. The French were doomed from the start. They did not mobilize as quickly and effectively as the Prussians, were outmatched by Prussian Krupp artillery, and hardly won an important battle in the war. Here’s a link to a rather lengthy synopsis of the war. However, I’ll summarize a little shorter below:
Saarbrücken:
The French first planned to cross the border of France and move toward the Rhineland. Interestingly enough, the Prussians also planned to allow the French to cross the border and contain them there. Accordingly, the French II Corps under General Frossard and III Corps under Marshal Bazaine drove the Prussian 16 Infantry Division’s 40th Regiment back to Saarbrücken. However, Frossard found that Saarbrücken was a logistical dead-end, and that he was overextended compared with Moltke’s three armies in the area. Frossard soon withdrew back to Spicheren and Forbach.
Battle of Wissembourg (August 4, 1870):
French General Douay’s I Corps was attacked by the larger and less organized German 3rd Army. Douay’s Corps was overwhelmed and forced to retreat to Riedseltz, while Douay himself was slain during the battle. Failly’s V Corps and MacMahon’s I Corps did not even make the effort to reinforce the French I Corps.
Battle of Spicheren (August 6, 1870):
German General Karl Von Steinmetz’s I Army struck Frossard’s French 2nd Corps, followed by a combined assault by German II Army reinforcements. Once again, the French failed to send reinforcements. This Prussian one-two punch drove Frossard back into Metz.
Battle of Woerth (August 6, 1870):
140,000 Germans faced 35,000 French near Woerth, where the French were forced to retreat back toward the Vosges Mountains. German artillery rained havoc on the outnumbered French army. Failley, being ordered to relieve the French at Woerth with an entire corps, only sent one division which provided a cover for retreat instead of a hope for winning the battle. This battle has been termed the “cradle of Germany,” because it was the first major battle in a war that would unify Germany.
Battle of Mars-La-Tour or Rezonville (August 16, 1870):
Finding themselves bottled up in Metz, the French decided to head for Chalons, but 30,000 from the German III Corps discovered them on Mars-la-Tour’s east side. The outnumbered Prussians managed to not only rout the French, but also to trap them inside Metz. Desperately trying to avoid defeat, the French cavalry led a large counter-attack against the Prussian III Corps in what became the last large-scale cavalry clash in Western Europe. Although the cavalry decreased the III Corps by half its men, it was not enough. A final opportunity for French victory opened up when the French advanced guard moved to break through the key Prussian defensive position. However, two Prussian corps struck the French assault by mistake, thinking it was a retreat. In a valiant skirmish, these Prussians held off the weight of the entire French Army for the duration of the day, and the battle was won.
Battle of Gravelotte (August 18, 1870):
In this titanic battle, 188,332 Germans beat 113,000 French, with 20,000 German casualties mostly due to Chassepot rifles and mitrailleuses and 7,800 French casualties largely because of German Krupp artillery. In this attempt to break through the Prussians to Verdun, the French dug in and blasted away at the German advance with their Chassepots and mitrailleuse. However, the German breach-loading steel Krupp proved stronger. The French retreated to Metz.
Siege of Metz (September 3 – October 23, 1870):
From the First and Second Armies, 150,000 Prussians besieged Marshal Bazaine’s French Army of the Rhine. After over a month and a half, Bazaine surrendered the entire French force of 180,000 soldiers in addition to 6,000 officers. The Prussians were now allowed the opportunity to surround Paris.
Battle of Sedan (September 1, 1870):
Meanwhile, French Emperor Napoleon III and Marshal MacMahon raised the French Army of Chalons for the purpose of rescuing Bazaine at Metz. However, they decided to sidestep north to Sedan and then descend south to Metz. Prussian Marshal Moltke wisely saw this sidestep as an opportunity to waylay the French army, and led three corps northwest. At Beaumont the Prussians managed to push the French back to Sedan on August 30. On the following day, the Prussians surrounded Sedan and roared their artillery into the town. The French again and again tried to punch through, including three cavalry charges, but to no avail. At last, Napoleon III called everything off by nightfall. Representing the Emperor, Wimpffen left to discuss terms of surrender. The French hope was that their army could leave with their weapons on the pledge to never fight Prussia. Bismarck and Moltke found this to be utterly unacceptable, and Wimpffen was eventually granted time to confer with his associates. Napoleon III next resolved to personally meet with William I, but Bismarck would not let Napoleon III through. During negotiations between Bismarck and Napoleon III, Wimpffen went ahead and signed the Prussian terms of surrender, whereby the French surrendered as prisoners of war, giving up all weapons, and officers pledging not to fight Prussia were allowed to escape. Per these terms, the French actually handed over to the Prussians 81,000 soldiers (plus 21,000 captured during the battle) and 419 guns. Napoleon III was then allowed to speak with William I. After he left, the French Republic took over governmental affairs, and Napoleon III died as an exile in 1873 in London.
A New French Republic:
General Trochu, Leon Gambetta, and Jules Favre staged a successful and bloodless coup in Paris after hearing that Napoleon III was captured, and formed a new French Republic on September 4th. Bismarck had hoped that an armistice would follow Napoleon III’s apprehension because he feared the entrance of other powers into the war, but the Republic was not to be bargained with. Prussia insisted that the French province Alsace be granted to Prussia. In an invigorated determination not to cede any territory in France, the new French Republic renewed the war declaration. Because most of what was left of French resistance resided around Paris, the Prussians began a siege of Paris. The Italian revolutionary Giuseppe Garibaldi, who had originally sided with Prussia, believed that the request for Alsace was too much, and he offered his services to the French Republic. He was given command of the Army of the Vosges, and accompanied by the francs-tireurs guerrillas, conduced a guerrilla war. His accomplishments include destroying the bridge at Fontenoy-sur-Moselle, defeating the Prussians at Chatillon, and delaying a Prussian advance from Dijon until February 1871. The war was to continue until France expended nearly everything.
Battle of Coulmiers (November 9, 1870):
Gambetta’s new French Army of the Loire surprised Ludwig Freiherr von und zu der Tann’s Barvarian army at Coulmiers on Orleans’s western side. Raining shells down into the camp sent the Germans into a panicked retreat during a French bayonet charge. This was one of France’s few victories.
Loire Campaign:
Rallying the French countryside to himself, Gambetta’s army had numbered about 500,000 troops when first raised. The lower classes began seeing the war as not only high class business. The Prussians would not have had the power to fight a war throughout the countryside had it not been that Metz conveniently surrendered in October, and 100,000 German troops were freed to pursue Gambetta. Gambetta divided his army into two divisions, but one group was soon defeated at La Mans in January and another French army at Amiens, Bapaume, and St. Quentin. St. Quentin was particularly devastating, and scattered the northern army.
Eastern campaign:
Fragments from the Loire army rejoined as the Army of the East for one last push to win the war in the provinces. Bourkaki led this force north on to Belfort, besieged by the Prussians. However, Bourkaki was not strong enough to break though the Germans, and was driven into the mountains near Pontarlier and the Swiss border. Desperate to escape the Prussians, Bourkaki made the mistake of crossing into neutral Switzerland. The Swiss promptly disarmed and imprisoned them. Now, it takes skill to lose to someone who’s neutral! With this defeat, the provincial war was lost.
Siege of Paris (September 19, 1870 – January 28, 1871):
The Prussian siege of Paris ended in the downfall of the French nation and the ascendency of Germany. The French created a communications network with hot air balloons in order to continue the provincial war. However, food became scarce very quickly, and the Parisians ate rats and animals from the zoo. At thirty-three feet high, the walls surrounding Paris kept out the Prussians, but all efforts to break through the siege failed, including the Battle of Villiers (November 29 – December 3, 1870) and the Battle of Busenval (January 19, 1871). By late January, both the French government and Bismarck were ready to discontinue the war. The Prussian victory was complete: Paris surrendered its forts on January 30th, and agreed to cede Lorraine and Alsace along with 5,000,000,000 francs. Twelve days before the surrender, William I not only anticipated his victory over France but also cemented his reign over all of Germany in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles. If the Prussians were prepared to conquer an entire nation in order to unify themselves, what was next to be expected from a people who were now realizing Fredrick the Great’s Prussian militaristic dream?
After the Prussians withdrew, civil war followed in France. No one had witnessed such military audacity in Continental Europe since the Napoleonic Wars. Paris lay in ruin, and all of France had been turned upside-down. The French would never allow this to happen again, and their resolve was reflected both diplomatically and militarily. They amassed a grand army, strengthened their forts, and allied themselves with Germany’s neighbors Russia and Italy. This alliance was called the Triple Entente. Germany was no less ambitious about a buildup, and formed an alliance with Austria-Hungry. For about thirty-five years, these vast, ambitious, and unbalanced alliances faced one another in peacetime. By now, the Prussian military was unequalled in the Continent, and head of German general staff, Alfred von Schlieffen, designed a plan in which France would fall in 40 days if war came. The plan included marching through Belgium. Germany had even calculated the number of railroad ties necessary for the French invasion. This was by no means a “just in case” plan; it was a mathematical design for the destruction of France. Both France and Germany waited for the other to strike first. The situation would only be resolved in two world wars, which destroyed the 19th century European structure and formed the modern world.
Sources:
Image Reichsgründung1871-AW from Wikipedia
http://francoprussianwar.com/
http://francoprussianwar.com/war.htm
http://www.cwfsg.org/Sherman%20on%20Tactics.pdf
http://coco.raceme.org/films/lordoftherings/fellowship/quotes/intro.php
Potter, William. Providential Battles. Vision Forum Ministries, 2008. CD.
Spielvogel, Jackson J. Western Civilization Volume II: Since 1500 Sixth Edition. Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth, 2006. Print.
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